Female Genital Mutilation

Is Female Genital Mutilation A Moral Practice Female genital mutilation (FGM) is not a morally justified practice. It is an unnecessary procedure that has no medical health benefits to the girls and women it is being performed on. According to Utilitarianism, we should produce the greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest number affected. Utilitarian’s also believe that we should alleviate the greatest amount of pain and suffering for the greatest number affected. Based on Utilitarian grounds, FGM has no medical health benefits and it is a completely unnecessary act on females in this culture.It is also an extremely painful procedure that has very serious short term and long term side effects, including death. Jeremy Bentham, an Act Utilitarian, developed the hedonic calculus, which is a â€Å"scientific† methodology for determining which pleasures ought to be pursued and which pains ought to be avoided. FGM is an example of the pains that â€Å"ought† to be a voided. This principle enables individuals to provide good reasons for their course of action. When we are deliberating about the right thing to do, Bentham maintains that we must always account for the pleasures and pains.Examples of this are the intensity, duration, certainty or uncertainty, remoteness, fecundity, purity and extent of the pleasure or pain. In order to understand why FGM is not a morally justified practice and why it goes against the principles of Utilitarianism, you have to know what FGM is. You need to learn who it is being performed on and what age, why it is being done, where it is happening, how it is performed, and what short term and long term side effects occur, after this procedure has been done.The pain and suffering that is resulting from this procedure is going against the greatest happiness principle of Utilitarianism. There is a reason why it is no longer called female circumcision and is now being referred to as female genital mutilation. FGM is an u n-safe, un-sterile procedure that is taking place in many foreign countries around the world including Egypt, the Sudan, the Horn of Africa, the Middle East and Malaysia (Winter, Par. 6). FGM harms girls and women in these cultures by causing them severe pain and multiple serious side effects.According to the hedonic calculus, and the principle of intensity, it states that some pleasures and pains are more intense than others. The girls or women in this culture are being put through an extreme amount of intense pain for no beneficial reason. The procedure is being done by midwives or older â€Å"experienced† women in the villages that do not have any medical training and are not educated in the field of medicine. Not only is FGM a dangerous procedure, but it also has physical, sexual and mental consequences (Amnesty International USA, Par. 3).According to the World Health Organization, this practice has many serious side effects including shock, hemorrhage (bleeding), tetanus or sepsis (bacterial infection), urine retention, open sores in the genital region and injury to nearby genital tissue (Par. 13). Other side effects can include death, serious infections, HIV, abscesses, small benign tumors, and clitoral cysts (wolvesdream, Par. 5). The World Health Organization has also reported many long term consequences which include; recurrent bladder and urinary tract infections, cysts, infertility, an increased risk of childbirth complications and newborn deaths (Par. 4). It can also lead to a need for later surgeries in life (Par. 14). For example, the FGM procedure that seals or narrows a vaginal opening needs to be cut open later in life to allow for sexual intercourse and childbirth (Par. 14). In this same procedure, women could be cut and stitched repeatedly, leading to further complications and more long term risks. Along with the high risk of short term and long term side effects, the biggest issue resulting from this procedure is death. FGM is the re moval of all or part of the external parts of the female genitalia.It is a cultural practice that started in some African countries over 2000 years ago (wolvesdream, Par. 1). According to this same source, FGM is primarily a cultural practice, not a religious practice (Par. 1). However, in some cultures they do include it as part of their religion (Par. 1). In these foreign countries, FGM has become something that is just expected and defines them to their culture (Par. 1). According to the people in this culture, girls will not become women, or adults for that matter, if this procedure is not performed.Most will be considered un-clean and will not be able to marry without the procedure (Par. 9). In some cultures, the reasoning for this procedure, is that it will reduce the woman’s desire for sex, therefore reducing the chance of sex outside the marriage (Amnesty International USA, Par. 7). We can refer this to the purity aspect of the hedonic calculus, which states that some pleasures or pains are purer than others. Why is it fair to take away the pleasure of sexual intercourse from women, but not from men in this culture?What prevents the men from going outside the vows of a marriage? What is reducing their desire for sex and why are they considered â€Å"clean† without performing some kind of horrendous procedure? In this culture, since marriage is often the only role available for women, it is impossible for them to marry if they have not undergone this procedure (Par. 7). Is this procedure only being done to women in this culture because they do not value women? Is their only role in the community reproduction in order to maintain the culture and its practices?FGM is carried out at various ages in a girl’s life but it is most frequently around the ages of four to eight years of age (wolvesdream, Par. 3). Referring back to Bentham’s hedonic calculus and the principle of remoteness, it states that some pleasures and pains may com e sooner than others. The girls that are enduring this procedure are at a very young, immature and undeveloped age. However, the pain inflicted in the procedure doesn’t end here. It can be a lifetime of pain and suffering with every sexual encounter or birth.Looking further at the hedonic calculus and the principle of certainty or uncertainty, it states that there is either pleasure or pain in an act. The girls in this culture are forced into this procedure knowing that they will have to endure an extreme amount of pain that could last a lifetime, depending on the circumstances. According to an article written on FGM, there are three different types of FGM that take place in different cultures (Par. 3). The first one is called Sunna Circumcision which is the removal of the prepuce (retractable fold of skin, or hood) or the tip of the clitoris (Par. ). In this culture Sunna is Arabic for â€Å"tradition† (Par. 3). The second type is Clitoridectomy which is the removal o f the entire clitoris (prepuce and glands) and the removal of the adjacent labia (Par. 3). The third type is called infibulation (pharonic circumcision) which consists of performing a clitoridectomy (removal of all or part of the labia minora, the labia majora) (Par. 3). This is then stitched up allowing only a small hole to remain open to allow for urine and menstrual blood to flow through (Par. 3).To conduct this procedure the midwives or village women use various un-sanitized instruments including; broken glass, tin can lids, blunt knives, scissors, and razor blades (Amnesty International USA, Par. 3). In most cases, these items are used repeatedly, without any type of sterilization or disinfecting. This practice has lead to the rapid spread of many diseases, high infection rates and HIV. Typically, this procedure is performed without any anesthesia and there are no antibiotics given to prevent infection. The only medical treatment they receive is being stitched up using anything from cat or lamb intestine, to the use of thorns (Par. ). If infibulation or a clitoridectomy is performed, their legs are bound for up to two months while their wounds heal, leaving them immobilized (Par. 3). We can refer this back to the hedonic calculus and the principle of duration, which states that some pleasures or pains will last longer than others.Depending on the type of procedure done and how it is done, these girls could endure a lifetime of pain and suffering resulting from this practice. According to research, an estimated 135 million girls and women have undergone FGM and 2 million girls a year are at risk for having this procedure done (Amnesty International USA, Par. ). This accounts for approximately 6,000 girls per day (Amnesty International USA, Par. 5). Referring back to the hedonic calculus, the extent of pain and suffering that is being inflicted on the girls and women of this culture is astounding and the numbers are staggering. After reading about FGM and t he culture it is being performed in, some cultural relativists may argue that the ethical understandings vary between cultures and what may be considered morally wrong in one culture may be perfectly acceptable in another.However, considering the fact that FGM involves the deliberate infliction of severe pain and suffering and that its effects can be life threatening, it does not follow the greatest happiness principle in Utilitarianism. Not only is it a violation of the rights of females but because it is most commonly performed on girls ranging in age from birth to adolescence, it is a grave violation of Children’s Human Rights (Amnesty International USA, Par. 10).In conclusion, female genital mutilation is not a morally justified practice because it goes against the greatest happiness principle of Utilitarianism. It violates the rights of females and female children. It causes serious pain and suffering that can last a lifetime. The amount and seriousness of the side effec ts outnumber any traditional or religious values that some cultures believe in. Therefore, according to Utilitarian grounds, we should produce the greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest number affected by eliminating this cultural practice all together.In doing this we would be alleviating the greatest amount of pain and suffering for the greatest number affected.Works Cited Amnesty International USA. Action for Human Rights. Hope for Humanity. n. d. Female Genital Mutilation: A Fact Sheet. Web. 27 Sept. 2010. â€Å"Female Genital Mutilation. † n. p. wolvesdreams. tripod. com. n. d. Web. 25 Sept. 2010. Winter, Mary. â€Å"Female Genital Mutilation. † The Rocky Mountain News, 31 Jan. 1996. Print. World Health Organization. Female Genital Mutilation, 2010. Web. 25 Sept. 2010.

Air Cargo Forecasts: The MergeGlobal Forecast

The MergeGlobal forecast entitled Steady Climb speaks of the air freight tonnage growth after the traffic boom of 2004, following years of stagnation in 2002 and 2003 because of the dot-com bubble and collapse in technological spending in 2001 (Clancy & Hoppin, 2006, p.65).After the global traffic boom came the slow but positive growth since 2005 until 2010 (Clancy & Hoppin, 2006, p.65).   What we ask therefore, is how long it would take before the next downturn of growth rate begins again.MergeGlobal, however, forecasts that â€Å"[G]lobal traffic growth is most likely to maintain and to gently accelerate over the next five years† (Clancy & Hoppin, 2006, p.65).   Because of sustained economic growth in North America, Europe, and Japan, there would be an additional demand in world intercontinental air freight, while increasing metric tons by 3.0% from 2000 to 2005, and by 6.4% from 2005 to 2010 (p.65).Industrial goods production from North America and Europe would be trans ported to Asia via air freight because of persistent congestion and delay problems in the ocean transport system, and thus, creating a positive upgrade and effect to the world intercontinental air freight.As indicated above, the absence of a downturn would lead to a compound average growth rate that is 6.4% that is double the growth rate from 2000 to 2005.This is more than twice the forecasted growth rate in 2000, and slightly above the long-term growth trend of the air cargo tonnage.   As indicated too, â€Å"the single most important driver of air freight traffic growth is consumption growth, broadly measured by Gross Domestic Product† (p.66).Because there appears to be sustained positive GDP growth in the world’s most important air freight regions (except China), then it is presumed that, consistent with the historical patterns of the globe, the air freight tonnage is expecting steady growth until 2010.Majority of the new traffic is expected to boom in the Asian r egions for trade and industry.   This includes Australia and the Indian subcontinent; while Mexico is put in the Latin America category.Reference:Clancy, B., & Hoppin, D. (2006, August). Steady climb: MergeGlobal forecasts accelerating intercontinental air freight demand growth through 2010. Retrieved July 30, 2009, from the MergeGlobal database: http://www.mergeglobal.com/articles/2006-08_Steady-Climb_Article.pdf.

Narnia Symbolism

Narnia Symbolism Free Online Research Papers The symbolism in the novel/film â€Å"The Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe† written by C.S. Lewis resembles the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ. In the beginning of the story there are four children, Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy who later on are introduced to more characters. The White Witch symbolizes the Devil and the evil she has put over Narnia is symbolized in the cold snowy weather. When the children enter Narnia, Edmund betrays his brother and sisters by going to the White Witch telling her that he has brought them to Narnia. He did this because the White Witch promised him Turkish delight and power, but she lied and took him captive. Edmund represents all mankind who has betrayed Christ from birth and who Jesus died for on the cross. Man is led away by the enticements of this world and becomes selfish and fallen from the standards of Christ. Because of his betrayal, he is also been compared to Judas of the New Testament and Adam in the Garden of Eden. When Peter, Susan, and Lucy follow the beavers to safety from the White Witch, they learn about the returning of Aslan, the lion. Aslan is the one that will rise against the evil of the White Witch and bring peace and love back into Narnia. Aslan represents Jesus Christ, the savior. As Aslan returns to Narnia, the snow covering all of Narnia begins to melt and spring returns, which indicates that evil is diminishing and the spirit of Christ is spreading. Later in the story, Edmund is rescued from the White Witch and brought back to a camp to be with his brother and sisters. This camp is where the forces of good in Narnia are preparing for a war against the forces of evil lead by the White Witch. At the camp Aslan talks to Edmund alone and tells him that his si ns are forgiven and forgotten. When the White Witch orders a meeting with Aslan, she demands Edmund be given back to her due to the laws of Traitors. Instead of returning Edmund back to the White Witch, Aslan makes a deal with the White Witch to offer his life in return for Edmund’s freedom. On the night of Aslan’s sacrifice, Susan and Lucy accompany him. After Aslan is killed by the White Witch, Susan and Lucy stay with his body. Susan and Lucy symbolize the women who stayed with Jesus through his crucifixion and death. The returning of Aslan signifies the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. Since Aslan was not there to lead the forces of good into battle, Peter was given that responsibility. Peter leading the good forces into battle symbolizes the Apostle Peter who becomes the leader of the Christian church after Jesus Christ’s ascension. After the forces of evil are defeated and the children are crowned as Kings and Queens of Narnia, Aslan leaves. The leaving of Aslan symbolizes the Ascension of Jesus Christ into Heaven only to return later. To a greater extent, C.S. Lewis’s novel, â€Å"The Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe†, reinforces the Christian ideal that through Jesus Christ’s love and guidance man will ultimately triumph over evil. Research Papers on Narnia SymbolismThe Masque of the Red Death Room meaningsThe Spring and AutumnWhere Wild and West MeetBook Review on The Autobiography of Malcolm XHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows EssayComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoHonest Iagos Truth through DeceptionThe Hockey GameCapital PunishmentQuebec and Canada

Free Essays on Role Models In Society

Typically we associate roll models as perfect members of society. A role model is the type of person that you would take home to meet the parents. A role model can be someone who fights corruption, helps society, or follows in the footsteps of religious figures. And most colleges hear of role models that tell them to achieve theirs goals they way they did by studying hard, making the right choices, and always putting school first. But my role model didn’t never went to school. In fact he didn’t make it past freshmen year in high school. But my roll model has done things that I can even being to imagine. From the time he was fifteen he has done everything from build race cars to work for NASA and even helped design and build the rides at Disneyland. He is my boss, Chief, which is a fitting name for one of the leaders in my life. I first met chief after 9 months of trying to get a job at a local stereo shop. I had only come into contact with his son, Jean, the manager. My goal was to just learn how to install stereos in exchange for doing odd jobs around the shop so eventually I was have the skill to have the job that most teenagers would die for. After 9 months of practically begging every Friday for work Jean let me have my chance. So I started my apprenticeship with chief was my mentor. It was and still to this day is one of the biggest challenges of my life. For chief it was him passing down his knowledge in a way to be sure that I do things right the first time. Many night we would be up until 1 or 2 am working until I understood the â€Å"lesson for the day† whether it be installing mobile video, doing layout design and production in the machine shop, or working on the dragster for one of his race teams. His teachings and discipline put me in a position that I wouldn’t even have i magined before I started working at the shop. After 1 year when I was 17 I was al of a sudden working on $70,000 hummers, $250,00... Free Essays on Role Models In Society Free Essays on Role Models In Society Typically we associate roll models as perfect members of society. A role model is the type of person that you would take home to meet the parents. A role model can be someone who fights corruption, helps society, or follows in the footsteps of religious figures. And most colleges hear of role models that tell them to achieve theirs goals they way they did by studying hard, making the right choices, and always putting school first. But my role model didn’t never went to school. In fact he didn’t make it past freshmen year in high school. But my roll model has done things that I can even being to imagine. From the time he was fifteen he has done everything from build race cars to work for NASA and even helped design and build the rides at Disneyland. He is my boss, Chief, which is a fitting name for one of the leaders in my life. I first met chief after 9 months of trying to get a job at a local stereo shop. I had only come into contact with his son, Jean, the manager. My goal was to just learn how to install stereos in exchange for doing odd jobs around the shop so eventually I was have the skill to have the job that most teenagers would die for. After 9 months of practically begging every Friday for work Jean let me have my chance. So I started my apprenticeship with chief was my mentor. It was and still to this day is one of the biggest challenges of my life. For chief it was him passing down his knowledge in a way to be sure that I do things right the first time. Many night we would be up until 1 or 2 am working until I understood the â€Å"lesson for the day† whether it be installing mobile video, doing layout design and production in the machine shop, or working on the dragster for one of his race teams. His teachings and discipline put me in a position that I wouldn’t even have i magined before I started working at the shop. After 1 year when I was 17 I was al of a sudden working on $70,000 hummers, $250,00...

How to Approach a Teacher With a Concern

How to Approach a Teacher With a Concern Even the best teachers make an occasional mistake. We are not perfect, and most of us will admit our failures. Great teachers will proactively inform  parents immediately when they realize they have made a mistake. Most parents will appreciate the candor in this approach. When a teacher realizes they have made a mistake and decides not to inform the parent, it seems dishonest and will have a negative effect on the parent-teacher relationship. When Your Child Reports an Issue What should you do if your child comes home and tells you they had an issue with a teacher? First of all, do not jump to conclusions. While you want to back your child at all times, it is necessary to realize that there are always two sides to a story. Children will occasionally stretch the truth because they are afraid they will be in trouble. There are also times that they did not accurately interpret the actions of the teacher. In any case, there is a right way and wrong way to address any concerns brought about by what your child had told you. How you confront or approach the issue may be the most crucial aspect of handling a concern with a teacher. If you take a â€Å"guns blazing† approach, the teacher and the administration are likely going to label you a â€Å"difficult parent†. This will lead to increased frustration. School officials will automatically go into defense mode and will be less likely to cooperate. It is imperative that you come in calm and level-headed.   Addressing the Issue With the Teacher How should you address a concern with a teacher? In most cases, you can start with the teacher themselves. However, it is crucial to note that if it involves the breaking of a law inform the principal and file a police report. Set up an appointment to meet with the teacher at a time that is convenient for them. This will typically be before school, after school, or during their planning period. Let them know immediately that you have some concerns and want to hear their side of the story. Provide them with the details that you have been given. Give them an opportunity to explain their side of the situation. There are times where a teacher genuinely does not realize they have made a mistake. Hopefully, this will provide the answers you are seeking. If the teacher is rude, uncooperative, or speaks in vague double talk, it may be time to advance to the next step in the process. In any case, be sure to document the details of your discussion. This will be helpful should the issue remain unresolved. Most issues can be resolved without having to take it to the principal. However, there are certainly times when this is warranted. Most principals will be willing to listen so long as you are civil. They field parent concerns quite often so they are usually adept at handling them.  Be prepared to provide them with as much information as possible. What to Expect Next Understand that they are going to investigate the complaint thoroughly and that it may take them several days before they get back with you. They should provide you with a follow-up call/meeting to discuss the situation further. It is essential to note that they will not be able to discuss the specifics if teacher discipline was warranted. However, there is an excellent chance that the teacher was placed on a plan of improvement.  They should provide details of a resolution as it pertains directly to your child. Again, it is beneficial to document the details of the initial meeting and any follow-up calls/meetings. The good news is that 99% of perceived teacher problems are handled before getting to this point. If you are not satisfied with the way the principal handled the situation, the next step would be to go through a similar process with the superintendent. Only take this step if the teacher and the principal absolutely refuse to cooperate with you in handling the problem. Give them all the details of your situation including the results of your meetings with the teacher and principal. Allow them plenty of time to resolve the issue. If you still believe the situation is unresolved, you may take the complaint to the local board of education. Be sure to follow the district policies and procedures for being placed on the board agenda. You will not be allowed to address the board if you have not. The board expects administrators and teachers to do their jobs. When you do bring a complaint before the board, it can force the superintendent and principal to take the matter more seriously than they had previously. Going before the board is the last opportunity to have your problem resolved. If you still are unsatisfied, you can decide to seek a change of placement. You can look to have your child placed in another classroom, apply for a transfer to another district, or homeschool your child.

Sociocultural Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Sociocultural Theory - Essay Example 101). The debate about the definition of term 'collaborative' as well as ongoing attempts to identify relevant criteria to determine whether learning is collaborative or not does not seem to have any major implications for the basics of collaborative learning. Almost every research study exploring collaborative learning environment comes to positive conclusions (Johnson, Johnson, and Stanne, 1986; Natasi and Clements, 1991). Natasi and Clements (1991) summarize these conclusions in the following way: "Cognitive-academic and social-emotional benefits have been reported for students from early elementary through college level, from diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds, and having a wide range of ability levels Furthermore, cooperative learning has been used effectively across a wide range of content areas, including mathematics, reading, language arts, social studies and science" (p. 111). Initially, research in the realm of collaborative learning focused on functioning of an individual learner in a group: the theories which dominated cognitive psychology over the 1970s tended to emphasise the role of individual information processors in the process of cognition. The social context of this process was viewed as secondary to individual activity (Dillenbourg et al, 1996: 189). The last decades of the 20th century were marked by increased attention to the social context, and, consequently, improved understanding of the process of cognition. Much of the shift was due to growing influence of sociocultural theory in pedagogical practice. This theory is very helpful in predicting, explaining and justifying the above listed cognitive, psychological and social benefits of engaging students in collaborative learning activities MAIN DISCUSSION The theoretical background underlying contemporary models of collaborative learning relies heavily upon three major theories of learning: socio-constructivist theory, socio-cultural theory, and shared cognition theory (Dillenbourg et al, 1996). These three perspectives share the basic features of cognitive stance, including the focus on the interactive aspect of human development and learning, but the socio-cultural theory has been recently gaining momentum as the most influential among the three in the realm of language education (Lantolf, 2000; Wells, 1999). L. S. Vygotsky formulated the basics of socio-cultural theory in the 1920s and 1930s, though current conceptualisations of this approach also draw on works and ideas of other theorists (Luria, 1979; Wertsch, 1991, 1998; Newman and Holzman, 1993; Cole, 1996). The essence of socio-cultural theory is exploring the causal relationship between the social interactions and cognitive

The History and Journey of the Navajo Indian Tribe Essay

The History and Journey of the Navajo Indian Tribe - Essay Example There is an overwhelming source of works written, researched, viewed by people from all walks of life on the Navajo Indian Tribe. The enormity of information and data would already reveal the abundance of valuable wealth this tribe have shared to the history and culture of the American people. Who exactly are the Navajos? How come so many historians, anthropologists and scholars have been interested to know them and to be part of their cultural heritage? Where have they originated? What were their challenges and successes as a people? How are they now? The objectives of this essay are briefly summarized as follows: 1.To gain knowledge on the Navajo Indian Tribe: their attributes and characteristics, way of life, culture, livelihood and religious practices. 2.To explore their history and journey with them through time. 3.To determine their contribution to the human race. It is the objective of this essay to present their historical path and determine their legacy to the future. II. THE NAVAJO INDIANS The Navajo Indians are the largest tribe of North America. According to articles on the Navajo People found in Wikipedia, â€Å"the name ‘NAVAJO’ comes from the late 18th century via the Spanish (Apaches de) Navajo, Apaches of Navajo, which was derived from the Tewa navahe, ‘fields adjoining a ravine’†. It is interesting to note that the Navajo call themselves DINE, which means, â€Å"the people†. They now occupy a large area of cultivated land, named NAVAJO, in what is now Arizona and New Mexico.